Relationship Of Religion And Afghanistan Politics Essay

Relationship Of Religion And Afghanistan Politics Essay Historically, religion has a strong influence in every aspect of life, especially politics, in Afghanistan. The relationship between these two entities has been established for long time. The religion of Islam has been always integrated into the political and educational system of the country. Afghanistans constitution is derived from Islamic Sharia laws, which has combined religious and secular systems. The amalgamation of religion and politics in Afghanistan has caused decades of instability and in order to stabilize the country the politics and education system should be separated from the religion. We believe that Islam is the superior religion, and we appreciate the Islamic laws. However, religious leaders who are in the politics are misusing Islamic decrees. Therefore, it is not only defaming Islam, but also creating misunderstanding between nations, slowing down the economy and becoming a reason for conflicts in the county. To stabilize the country, apply human rights, and bring overall peace in Afghanistan, there should be compatibility between religion and politics. This can be possible through a secular system to fragment the religious elite powers from the state or in Islamic point of view Ijtihad (General acceptance of new concepts and privileges in to Islamic Sharia law) in the religion. For the first time in the history of Afghanistan, King Amanullah Khan brought magnificent reforms in the political and education systems of the country during 1928 after his state visit from Europe. King Amanuallah Khan struggled to apply European norms in Afghanistan. He realized that a secular system is the best solution to overcome dilemmas in the country. Europe could not stop their internal political problems for many decades due to religion influences between the sects of Christianity. After years of quarrels Europeans realized that beside religion, which directs spiritual life, government should control secular life. Europeans achieved their goals and created a strong union by their novel idea of separation of religion from state. The king chose the same strategy, but the strong bonds of religious parties and their extremist movements failed him. The religious leaders with public furor turned down the system and ousted the king from the throne(Riza). The newborn secular system was devastated by religious bodies, which changed governments systems. The secular schools, including girls schools, closed. Women divorce rights ended. They abolished the secular courts and replaced them by Sharia law courts, which are still applicable. Overall, Afghanistan relinquished a huge opportunity and faced challenges that led the country to the current instability in every aspect of life, especially politics, education, and social integrity (Riza). The state system was already mixing with strong Sharia law, so that the country faced a dark age of obstacles, three decades of war and Soviet invasion. After the collapse of communist regime, Mujahedeen took over the power and civil war started in the country. It was not long that the fundamentalist Taliban captured Afghanistan. These extremists not only were deprived from global modernity, but also neglect of the real Islamic knowledge. They were claiming on applying pure Islamic Sharia law. In actuality, they applied a system that was anti-Islamic and anti-human means. After the collapse of the Taliban regime, the world supported Afghans and changed the government system of the country. Afghanistans new constitution ratified, an amalgamate government formed. Yet religious parties are strongly involved in the system. They interfere in every component of the government. Indeed, they are a strong barrier against application of democracy in the country and people are still suffering. On the other hand, the legal system is a mixture of devout and customs that mostly religious leaders are practicing customary ideas inside the Islamic laws. It contradicts both Sharia law and human rights. Because of the less and primitive cultural and madrasas knowledge most religious leaders cannot distinguish between Sharia laws and old practiced customs. For example, in the rural regions they are applying a customary concept called Baad. In Baad case when, there is a conflict between two families or relatives, if anyone is killed from any side, to resolve this dispute, the murderers side usually gives his daughter or a girl to the victims family. It is opposite to any Islamic and state laws in the world. This custom is completely against human rights, even not acceptable in the Islamic law, yet it is practiced in many parts of the country. If there were a secular state legal system established in the country, the state would resolve the issue and people would not suffer. Likewise, religion influences has strongly affected globalization and the national interest of Afghanistan. The world market is so diverse now, globalization interconnects the world, and countries have close business relationship in most cases without consideration of differences in ethnicity, language, and religion. Nevertheless, in a country like Afghanistan the devout leaders and their wrong interpretation of Islam have severely damaged the national interest of the country. As an example, a few months ago the Ministry of Work and Social interaction presented a draft of new law for two days of national holiday in a week to the parliament. The ministry clearly pointed the reasons behind its appeal. They calculated the saving of total cost of government employees during the one day off. In broader prospect, Afghanistans official days has a serious problem with global market. Many businesses are suffering from global transactions, because of the clashes between the holidays in Afghani stan and the rest of world. We have one and half-day holiday during a week, half day off on Thursdays and one day off on Friday. Conversely, most countries especially the Europe and market-oriented countries such as US and China are off on Saturday and Sunday. There is a delay of any business activity at least for two days, which can create huge financial damages for businesses in the country. Besides the strong reasons of the Ministry, the parliament of Afghanistan rejected this draft of law. Because, the parliament is consists of many religious leaders they strongly refused to ratify this law. Their only reason behind was that it is an infidel movement and Afghanistan is an Islamic country. Parliament declared that never want to copy the Christian and Jewish customs and refused the draft. They have forgotten that the Saudi Arabia, which is believe to be the center of Islam, has accepted the two days of holiday because of its compatibility with global market and other political issues. I strongly believe that Afghanistan will never triumph over its economic and political struggles, unless the religious leaders are removed from politics and the separation of the state from the religion. Similarly, ignorant religious leaders deprive women of education. We accept that there are certain rights for women in Islam. However, we cannot compare the current modern area with 1,400 years ago. Moreover, a secular system to stabilize the society and apply the human rights should be compatible with the religion and modernity. Sociologist Steve Bruce argues that: Modernity undermines religion, except when it finds some major social role to play other than mediating the natural and supernatural worlds.(Bruce) In the broader view if religion steps outside of its traditional roles and takes on tasks or identities that are useful on a broader social scale, then it is possible for religion to maintain itself into modernity(Barker). In Islam, it is possible through Ijtihad, which Muslims scholars come to gather and introduce new contemporary concepts and privileges into Islamic Sharia law. The concept of Steve Bruce is acceptable in Islam via Ijtihad. They can include further womens rights inside Islamic laws including education, divorce, and gender equality. Unfortunately, considering Afghanistans situation and its religious and political leaders, it is impossible to apply Ijtihad. Therefore, the only proper way to bring prosperity to the people and the country is to set the religious leaders aside from politics. Let them to practice their religion and the government to do its job, like Turkey, another Islamic country. At the same time, education in Afghanistan like other Muslim countries has a long history. Islam had a major role on Afghan education for centuries. Today, education consists of three different categories: traditional or indigenous (pre-Islamic), modern, and Islamic education. Within the last category, there are four types of Islamic schools in Afghanistan: mosque schools; traditional madrasa, first level; second level; and the modern madrasa or in other words Islamic studies in university level. In addition, Arabic schools have appeared from the eighties and onwards. Moreover, Islam has been a dominant religion in most parts of the country for more than 1200 years and Islamic education has reached many parts of the population including rural people living in remote areas. The Koranic education not only teaches Koran but also writing, reading and counting to rural villagers, -i.e. boys and men. Islam also includes Sharia law, which infers that legal regulations and documents used among illiterate people. During the early twentieth century, the leaders tried to modernize the country, and were influenced by the developments in Turkey. The first constitution was approved on 1923 and more opportunities were given to education, and girls were also allowed to go to school. During the supremacy of King Zahir Shah (1933-1973) the government adopted new constitution and there was a significant growth in modern sector. An Islamist movement was crushed in 1975 and its leaders fled to Pakistan (Karlsson and Mansory). Throughout the 20th century there have been excessive waves of both liberal reform and traditionalist movements in Afghanistan. In the meantime, struggles over control of the education system have become a major competition between democratic and Islamist parties. The democratic and Islamist parties of the Mujahedeen have all tried to shape the political and ideological landscape of Afghanistan by carrying out reforms and religious decrees through education institutions. Afghanistan suffered immensely from the struggles for secular and religious control of educational institutions. Control of the education system has been a mobilizing force for the Mujahedeen movement, the socialists, and the overthrow of the Soviet-made government and the rise of the Taliban. There have been Links between the radical madrassas and the formation of the Taliban and involvement of such institutions of education in breeding Islamic extremism and have been a considerable factor on the security of the Afghan state (Afghanitan and Education). The struggles between secular and religious control of educational has almost totally collapsed the social sector. The literacy rate, for men 45 per cent and for women 11 per cent, among the lowest in the world. (Carlson and Mansory) Gender discrimination has been strengthened in the last decades. Over gender issues there have been many insurrections and battles in Afghanistan. Often, when womens participation in education has been enhanced, it has provoked counteractions. It is an empirical fact that education is a component of human security and one of the most important cornerstones of a society. Every society in the world has known the importance of secular education system and replicates each others experiences in peace-building and conflict prevention. A great example could be Turkey, which is one of the most developed Islamic countries in the world. Afghan government can imitate the Turkey experience and build a prosperous state. Education is a key component in creating communities and grantees their stability. However, the institutional aspects of education can also function as a root cause and source of conflict. This dual nature of education implies both the positive, or peace building and the negative, or conflict enhancing potential. Decades of instability in Afghanistan shows the linkage between institutional education and conflict, which has inadvertently helped to create the conditions for further conflict instead of building a foundation for reconciliation and sustainable peace. Education has a very essential but too often ignored role in relation to conflict prevention, reconciliation, resolution, and reconstruction. In fact, education had been known as a basis for investment in human capital, economic growth and mitigation of conflict. This rationale implies that education should be considered as a non-traditional instrument for building security. Brad Hayes and Jeffrey Sands authors of Non-traditional Military Responses to End Wars: Considerations for Policymakers, state: One, final and perhaps surprising, security area is education. Opening schools and getting children (particularly teenagers) off the streets reduces one source of potential instability, and frees their parents to go to work. School attendance also gives children hope for the future and provides them an alternative to joining factional militias.(Chesterman) By providing a civic curriculum and enhancing opportunities for students, education can act as a unifying factor in nation-building and stability. Education is also known as an essential component of peace-building. The global peace building means to empower the society to manage conflicts without violence and achieve sustainable human security. In brief, I would like to conclude that integration of political and educational system with religion has always been a chaos for countries like Afghanistan. Decades of instability and violence in Afghanistan are a good example to cite here. Afghanistan has faced many challenges with religious leaders who have used the religion as a tool to gain power and use the country for their own favors. Afghanistan political situation will never improve until the Afghan citizens identify the place of religion and politics. Since religion is a fate and politics is a game played to gain power. Afghan people should not trust anyone who uses the religion and play with peoples sentiments and gain power. In order to change the political situation in Afghanistan and lead the country to prosperity it is very important to disintegrate the political system from religion and establish a liberal and secular platform for educational system. As a Muslim I am pretty sure that Islam never contradicts modern ed ucation and democracy. Work Cited Page: Riza, Ali. The strategic use of Islam in Afghan politics. New York. Routledge, 2010: p1. Bruce, Steve. Religion in the Modern World. Oxford University Press. 1996: p 3. Barker, Philip W. and William J. Muck. Holy War for the 21st Century: Globalization, U.S. Foreign Policy, and the Development of Islamic Identity. University of Colorado. 2003: p 3. Afghanistan, Education, and the Formation of the Taliban. Fletcher School, Tufts University Leigh Nolan. January 2006: p1. Karlsson, Pia Amir Mansory. Islamic and Modern Education in Afghanistan Conflictual or Complementary? Institute of International Education Stockholm University, July 2008: p2-3. Chesterman, Simon. Walking Softly in Afghanistan: the Future of UN State- Building, Survival, Autumn 2002: vol. 33, p3.

Role of Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Role of Autotrophs and Heterotrophs Bacteria are unicellular micro-organisms that are found everywhere on earth. They are classified under prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are organisms which do not have a membrane bound nucleus unlike eukaryotes which possess a well formed nucleus. Though the bacteria do not possess the nucleus, they have genetic material in their DNA. The bacterial DNA is found in their cytoplasm. Though bacteria can cause diseases, only a small percentage of bacteria do so. The rest of the bacteria are harmless. The pathogenic bacteria are called parasitic bacteria and they thrive on the nutrition of other living matter for their survival. On the other hand, the saprophytic bacteria lead a symbiotic relationship with other living matter and do not cause any harm. Bacteria can be classified under various categories. They can be classified according to shape, nutritional and oxygen requirements, staining characteristics, motility, presence of cell wall and spore formation. Based on the nutritional requirements, they are classified in to: Heterotrophs Autotrophs Heterotrophic bacteria Heterotrophic bacteria grow on organic substances formed by animals and plants. They break down complex organic substances from these sources and derive carbon. Heterotrophic bacteria are divided in to Photosynthetic heterotrophs- These utilize the energy of light Chemotrophic heterotrophs These obtain energy from oxidation reduction reactions. The heterotrophic bacteria secrete enzymes which act on the complex organic substances and derive energy. Most of the heterotrophic bacteria are aerobic organisms and they need oxygen for their survival. Based on their relation with the energy sources they are again divided in to Saprotrophic bacteria- These bacteria derive nutrition from dead tissues. These are the common types of heterotrophs Saprophytic bacteria These bacteria live in close association with another species like plants and both of them get benefited. Most of the saprophytic bacteria live in association with the roots of the plants. The bacteria convert the atmospheric nitrogen in to nitrates which is utilized by the plants which in turn supply carbohydrates to the bacteria for their survival. Parasitic bacteria These bacteria live in close association with another species like plants and animals and derive their energy in expense of them. Heterotrophs exhibit two basic strategies for deriving energy from the organic substrates Fermentation In this process, the organic substrate acts as both electron acceptor and electron donor. There is no requirement of oxygen or other electron acceptor. Fermentation yields lesser energy (58 kcal/mole) Respiration This process requires external electron acceptor. The most common electron acceptor is molecular oxygen. When oxygen is used, the process is called aerobic respiration. If nitrates and sulphates are used, the process is called anaerobic respiration. Respiration yields more energy (686 Kcal/ mole). Most of the carbon in the atmosphere is derived by the process of respiration. 40%-80% of the respiration occurs under the soil. Autotrophs Autotrophic bacteria are organisms whose sole source of nutrition is carbon dioxide. They need only water, inorganic salts and carbon dioxide for growth. They are divided in to Photosynthetic autotrophs These bacteria utilize energy from light and are anaerobic organisms. This common among the two types and are quite diverse. These include cyanobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, purple sulfur bacteria, and purple non-sulfur bacteria. Suphur bacteria utilize hydrogen sulphide whereas others utilize water for nutritional process. Chemosynthetic autotrophs These derive energy from oxidation of inorganic materials like iron, sulphur, ammonia and nitrite. These organisms are anaerobic. These are usually found deep under the water and they are responsible for the food chain under the water. They derive the inorganic substrates from the volcanic vents. Soil biology Plants are terrestrial organisms and they obtain most of their nutrients from the soil. Animals derive energy indirectly from plants and other animals. This requires utilization of many elements such as inorganic compounds from the environment which are converted in to organic substances before they can be used as energy. The cycling of these elements is catalyzed by the bacteria present in the soil. Soil is the upper most layer of earth which varies in depth from a few inches to over twenty feet. The type of the soil depends on the four factors including the parent rock, the climate, the age and the biological factors like plants, bacteria and organic substances. Most of the biological activity occurs at the surface. Most of the organic substances are found in the upper layer or the upper horizon. Majority of the bacteria are found in the upper six to twelve inches of soil. Both autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria are found in the soil. Among the two heterotrophic bacteria are more commonly found in the soil. The heterotrophic bacteria in soil belong to the order Eubacteriales and Actinomycetales. The Actinomycetales are represented by the genera Streptomyces, Nocardia and Micromonospora. These bacteria have an earthy odour. Maximum bacterial growth and activity in the soil are found around the roots of the plants. This region is called rhizosphere. Almost all the ecological interactions occur in this region. These interactions could be favorable, unfavorable, indispensable and sometimes lethal. The most important function of the soil microorganisms is to decompose various kinds of organic matter. As said earlier, cycling of elements is done by bacteria. This is done to make the elements available for reuse. The elements are usually found in the reduced state inside the cell. When they are mineralized, they are in an oxidized state. They serve three functions They form the basic components of the cell They provide energy They act as electron acceptors during oxidation reactions Bacteria are involved in three types of cycles in the cycling of the elements necessary for energy Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle Sulphur cycle Carbon cycle About 50% of the dry weight of all living organisms is composed of carbon. The ultimate source of this organic carbon is the atmospheric carbon dioxide. Role of heterotrophs Reduce carbon dioxide by photosynthesis Fix carbon dioxide from preformed organic compounds Decompose the dead tissues of animals and plants and release the elements to be used again Role of autotrophs Reduce carbon dioxide by photosynthesis Utilize carbon dioxide from dissolution of carbonates and bicarbonates Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is the most important structural element of all living organisms. Though it is abundant in nature, it cannot be utilized by the plants and animals. The nitrogen cycle is concerned with incorporation of atmospheric nitrogen and organic nitrogen of dead plants and animals on to forms that are usable by higher organisms. Bacteria, both heterotrophs and autotrophs are involved in this cycle. There are five processes of nitrogen cycle: Ammonification The dead animals and plants are decomposed by the heterotrophs which release protein and other nitrogenous substances. These substances are broken down in to amino acids which are split to release ammonia. This release of ammonia from organic nitrogenous substance is called ammonification Nitrification The oxidation of ammonia in to nitrates is called nitrification. This takes place by two steps. The first step called nitrosification results in the formation of nitrites which are toxic to plants. The second step is oxidation in which the toxic nitrite is converted in to the non-toxic nitrates. Nitrate reduction The reversal process of nitrification is called nitrate reduction. The nitrate is converted in to nitrate which in turn is converted in to ammonia. Many organisms can assimilate cellular nitrogen from this ammonia. Denitrification -Certain microorganisms are capable of reducing nitrates in to nitrites and subsequently to gaseous nitrogen. This process is called denitrification. Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixation is a process by which the bacteria both autotrophs and heterotrophs fix atmospheric nitrogen. It is symbiotic of it is done by the bacteria living in the plant roots and non-symbiotic if it is done by bacteria independently. Role of heterotrophs in nitrogen cycle Primarily responsible for ammonification Cause nitrate reduction Involved in denitrification Involved in symbiotic nitrogen fixation Role of autotrophs Involved in ammonification under anaerobic conditions. The amine that is formed is oxidized to release ammonia Exclusively involved in nitrification. The family of autotrophs called Nitrobactericeaa is involved in this reaction Cause nitrate reduction Involved in denitrification Involved in non -symbiotic nitrogen fixation Sulphur cycle Sulphur is essential for all living organisms as sulphur containing amino acids are present in all proteins. It occurs in both organic and inorganic combinations. Cycling of sulphur is similar to nitrogen cycle. Transformation between organic and elemental states and between oxidized and reduced state are carried out by bacteria. Role of heterotrophs Heterotrophs in the soil degrade the proteins in the soil and liberate sulphur. Role of autotrophs Autotrophs oxidize various forms sulphur like hydrogen sulphide. The phototrophic autotrophs oxidize hydrogen sulphide in to elemental sulphur. The chemosynthetic autotrophs oxidize sulphur in to sulphates. Sulphate is the most suitable source of sulphur for plants. This sulphate is assimilated and converted in to proteins. Fresh water biology Fresh water is defined as water containing less than 1% of salt. The different fresh water zones include ponds and lakes and streams and rivers. Ponds and lakes Ponds and lakes consists of three zones: Uppermost littoral zone- This zone absorbs direct sunlight and contains algae, snails, insects, crustaceans and fishes. Middle limnetic zone This contains planktons Lower profundal zone- This zone contains heterotrophic bacteria. Very little enter this zone and hence it is very ideal for growth of the heterotrophs decompose the dead organisms by using oxygen through the process of respiration. Streams and rivers These are water bodies which move in one direction. The characters of these water bodies change during their course. There are three parts of these water bodies source, mid stream and mouth. The place where they reach and join another water source including ocean is called the mouth. The source of these water bodies contains high oxygen levels and hence the heterotrophs thrive here very well. Near the mouth, the light penetration and the oxygen content are very less and autotrophic bacteria are found in this region. Both heterotrophs and autotrophs exist and survive in the fresh water bodies. The processes are very similar to those that occur in the soil. In the fresh water bodies, these bacteria take care of the inorganic requirements of the algae which is similar to the plants on the soil. These organisms get in to these water bodies from air, soil, sewage, organic wastes, dead plants and animals. Climatic, geographical and biological conditions bring about great variation in the bacterial population. Rivers and stream show their highest count during rainy season. Dust blowing in to the rivers and streams also contributes to many bacteria. Animals contribute to the bacterial population by bathing and dropping their excreta. Among the various cycling of elements, the nitrogen cycle is most common one occurring in the water bodies. Role of heterotrophs They act on the dead animals and plants and other organic wastes and liberate nitrogen They can cause nitrate reduction resulting in the release of ammonia Role of autotrophs The nitrosomonas and nitrobacter species cause nitrification process Involved in ammonification under anaerobic conditions. The amine that is formed is oxidized to release ammonia

Birth Of Communication Essay -- essays research papers fc

Outline I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is important to reflect one’s own national and cultural identity to understand what is different among people of different nations. History teaches us that culture always changes because of internal or external influences, even our own cultures and values change over time. Our world today is a world in which people from different nations and cultures are getting closer and closer because of economical and political reasons. Because cultures are becoming closer, communication is the most important quality for anyone to work on if they want to work in the international society. The history of communication and the relationships that were formed in the early part of worldwide communication still reflect the relationships held between nations today. The question is how have cultural differences evolved as technology increased? Although many things have indeed changed in individual cultures and values, the knowledge of how communications work today can only be learned from studying communications of yesterday. II.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the turn of the century, Asia seemed very close because of â€Å"great modern inventions. However, the close feeling was only on communication terms. Culturally the effect of communication was a very complicated process. III.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although international communication was non-existent between distant countries only a few hundred years ago, cultural differences are accentuated today as an effect of communication technology. III.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Development of International Communication A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  19th century Asian Culture B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  19th century American Culture V.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  America meets new countries A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Talking to Asia B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thoughts of the world about the new player called America IV.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tensions A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Countries who became stronger or weaker (politically and economically) because of communication B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How did those who became stronger use communication to their advantage? (Politically) C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How the weaker countries reacted, and exposed themselves to the world as a culture. (If they did) V.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ben... ...c: An Inner History of American-East Relations. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc, 1967. Koester, Jolene, and Myron Lustig. Intercultural Communication and Competence. Vol 17.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  California: Sage Publications, 1993 Mancall, Mark. China at the Center: 300 Years of Foreign Policy. New York: The Free Press, 1984. Pong, David, and Edmund S.K. Fung, eds. Ideal and Reality: Social and Political Change in Modern China. Lanham: University press of America, 1985. Bibliography Fogel, Joshua A. The Cultural Dimension of Sino-Japanese Relations: Essays on the nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. NewYork: M.E. Sharpe, 1995. Chang, Gordon H. Friends and Enemies: The United States, China, and the Soviet Union, 1948-1972. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990. Carbaugh, Donal, ed. Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1990. Hart, Robert. The Eccentric Tradition: American Diplomacy in the Far East. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1976. Fischer, Heinz-Dietrich, and John Calhoun Merrill, eds. International and Intercultural Communication. New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1970.

The pulse code digitization and companding on a signal Essay example --

AIM The main aim of this project is to demonstrate the pulse code digitization and companding on a signal and to observe the effects of sampling depths and companding on the signal to noise ratio (SQR). INTRODUCTION PCM- In the pulse code modulation (PCM), the signal is a digitally represented analog signal in which the signal magnitude is sampled with uniform intervals. Each sample is quantized to the closest value of the digital signal. In the pulse code modulation, the signal is binary. The two possible states represented in PCM are logic 1(high) and logic 0 (low). The main advantage of PCM signal is that it is derived from analog signal which is multiplexed with data from the computer and carried over a common high-speed channel. COMPANDING- The combination of compressing and expanding is known as companding. In companding, the data is compressed before it is sent and then expanded at the receiving end using the same non-linear scale. The noise and crosstalk levels at the receiver are reduced due to companding. It is used in wireless microphones for better dynamic range and also in digital and telephony systems for compressing of the input signal and expanding of the output signal. The below figure 1 shows the demonstration of PCM with and without companding. Figure1- PCM with and without companding Procedure to create PCM and companding on excel sheet The PCM and companding of a signal is done on a spreadsheet using excel. Firstly, a sine wave is created by varying the time with respect to the amplitude. The frequency of the signal is taken as 10 Hz. The quantization process of the signal will be done. A quantized sine wave is then created. Now the number of levels cell (N) should be created. We take the value ... ...ude=0.1, large N=8. GRAPH I) Plot of SQR vs Amplitude with Companding (mu=255) and without Companding (mu=0). GRAPH J) Plot of SQR vs bit depth both with Companding (mu=255) and without Companding (mu=0). Where A=1, and bit depths are 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256. CONCLUSION: This lab was carried out to compand and quantizes a voice signal. We In the Using the pulse modulation technique, the analog signal is converted into the digital signal. The process of quantization and companding of a signal is carried on the spreadsheets. To attain a clear signal to quantization noise ratio, the number of samples should be increased. By increasing the sampling depth, the quantization error can be minimized. By companding process, the quantization noise and distortion levels can be minimized. Companding improves response for low amplitude signals.

The Yellow Wall Paper -- essays research papers

Stettler   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hour 5   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2/15/00   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Modern Lit. Essay #1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the early twentieth century a writers work usually represented ones surroundings. In the stories â€Å"Araby† by James Joyce and â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† by Charolotte Gilman there are examples of their immediate surroundings taking affect in there writings. In most cases a person becomes what there surroundings are because that was the way they were raised. A person’s family, friends, neighborhood and every day things will shape and mold ones morals and character.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† the narrator is also the author. Charolotte Gilman writes about her struggle with insanity. The story takes place in a house in the countryside. Johns plan was to get his wife away from all the hust...

Wrongful Conception

The traditional way of doing things in America goes as follows; you meet Mr. or Mrs. Right, you get married, buy a house and have a family. After having all the children that one family wants someone in the relationship makes the responsible decision to be permanently sterilized or continue using birth control until menopause. Being permanently sterilized means, having the woman’s fallopian tubes either clamped or cut so as no more eggs are release into the uterus or having a man’s seminal vesicles cut so that no sperm is ejaculated. When a pregnancy occurs after one of these measures has been taken, it is looked into as wrongful conception or wrongful pregnancy. Women can become pregnant when their fallopian tubes were not completely cut, a man’s seminal vesicles are not severed all the way or something is wrong with the birth control in which she is taking. Wrongful conception, also known as wrongful pregnancy, is a case of action based on negligence in the provision of birth control or performance of sterilization procedures that result in an unwanted pregnancy. Sullivan, 2000) Physicians and pharmacists have come under legal trouble when a patient becomes pregnant and it is unwanted. Women have many reasons for no longer wanting any more children. It could be due to the age of the women and she is at a higher risk for the child to be mentally handicapped. The couple could merely be done having children because they have the desired amount that they could afford and wanted. The woman could have had a ve ry difficult pregnancy in the past and therefore not want to put her at risk any further. All of these are legitimate reasons to have a surgical intervention to no longer have children or to prevent having children with birth control. Many of those parents who end up taking legal action against a physician are those who have genetic disorders that they do not wish to pass on to their unborn children. Parents who have genetic testing done and find out that the likelihood of their children developing sickle cell anemia, downs syndrome or any other genetic disorder choose to no longer put themselves in the running to conceive a child. According to The Journal of Health, many medical malpractice claims have been brought against doctors by parents of children born with genetic diseases. In most of these cases, the parents allege either that the physicians failed to inform the parents of the availability of genetic testing for the unborn child or that the physician negligently performed the genetic testing. These claims automatically make physicians, genetic counselors, and genetic testing laboratories possible defendants in civil law suits. As the patient or victim, it is a crushing moment to find out that someone failed to do their job and now an innocent life is being brought unwanted into the world. Patients have a Bill of Rights that must be followed by any physician or hospital. Patients have the right to access their own medical records. According to George D. Pozgar, patients may have access to information which includes, â€Å"that maintained or possessed by a health care organization and/or a health care practitioner who has treated or is treating a patient† (Pozgar, 2010, p. 396). With this right in place, patients should be able to prevent unwanted pregnancies from happening. This right makes for an open book policy in many hospital and physician offices. Patients now have access to their labs and records online or even in the physician’s office. The history behind wrongful conception is hard to determine with a timeline. It appears that when patients could have genetic testing done is when the number of cases started to arise for legal action being taken against physicians. One of the first reported cases was in 1974 with a family who sued their physician who performed a vasectomy after the couple’s fourth child. Continuing on from 1974 until present day, there are many patients that are affected from the actions of physicians all over. Currently, patients rely on medical testing to look for genetic disorders that can affect unborn children. Testing is becoming more and more advanced every day. Many pregnant have option to undergo genetic testing at twelve weeks to check for downs syndrome, trisomy 18, or trisomy 13. At the same time as these blood tests, an ultrasound test for fetal nuchal translucency is performed. Nuchal translucency screening uses an ultrasound test to examine the area at the back of the fetal neck for increased fluid. â€Å"Common tests during,†) During the second trimester of pregnancy a whole new set of blood tests are performed. Alpha-fetoprotein screening is done to determine open neural tube defects (ONTD) such as spina bifida, Down syndrome, other chromosomal abnormalities, defects in the abdominal wall of the fetus, twins – more than one fetus is mak ing the protein, or a miscalculated due date, as the levels vary throughout pregnancy. (â€Å"Common tests during,†) Some of these tests can come back negative when in reality they are positive or patients can also get a false-negative result. Patient now sign consents so that they will not sue the physicians when these rare occurrences happen. The way that lawsuits and malpractice suits have come up, the rate of lawsuits against physicians will continue to rise. It seems that physicians need to have malpractice insurance with higher premiums due to the fact the patients now are â€Å"sue happy†. Physicians are very careful about what information they tell their patients and with how tests and physical examinations are given. The more information and the more physicians explain circumstances to patients, the less likely a patient is to sue. There are patients who look for reasons to file malpractice suits against physicians. Wrongful conceptions or wrongful pregnancies do happen. There are many reasons for this unhappy occurrence to happen, physician wrongdoing, pharmacist tampering or misinformation given to the patient. No matter what the reason is that the conception happened, the parents of the unborn child are still going to be affected. To compensate for some of the mental and emotional damage that is going to be done with having an unplanned pregnancy, patients are choosing to sue physicians. References Pozgar, G. D. (2010). Legal and ethical Issues for health professionals (2nd ed.) Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Sullivan, Mary B. (2000, March 22). Article: wrongful birth and wrongful conception: a parent's need for a cause of action. . Retrieved from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-85016556.html Common tests during pregnancy. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.lpch.org/DiseaseHealthInfo/HealthLibrary/pregnant/tests.html Untitled. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.loislaw.com/gpc/[email  protected]

Lonely Miss Brill the Eavesdropper

Miss Brill by Katherine Mansfield is about a middle-aged English teacher who secretly listens to other people's conversation due to her loneliness. Every weekend Miss Brill goes out to the parade in a park and listens to other people's conversation because she has nobody to talk to but her fur coat. She treasures her fur coat as if it's her pet and has conversations with it. Towards the end of the story, she realizes that nobody likes her, therefore she goes home into her dark room and cries.Katherine Mansfield, uses imagery, characterization, and point-of-view uses these three literary elements to inform the meaning of the lonliness. The author uses imagery for the reader to better understand the story and to create the apperance of her loneliness. In the beginning of the story, the author states â€Å"She had taken it out of its box that afternoon, shaken out the moth powder†¦ rubbed the life back into the dim little eyes. † (Mansfield 1)Here, Miss Brill takes out her f ur coat and starts to talk to it and pets it as if it is her pet.From this, the reader can can visually interpret that Miss Brill had no friends or family to talk to when she was lonley. Furthermore, towards the end of the story, a girl at the park says, â€Å"It's exactly like a fried whiting. â€Å"(Mansfield 4) The reader can visualize the story the author intended on how the little girl at the park makes fun of Miss Brill of her fur coat saying that it looks like fried fish. After hearing this, Miss Brill goes home and cries in her dark room. In addition, the author uses point-of-view for the reader to step into the main characters' shoes.In the beginning of the story, when Miss Brill went to the park to watch the parade, the author states â€Å"Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too? She sure it was new. † (Mansfield 1) From this quote, the reader can see that she went to the parade often, enough to know what the bandsmen wore each weekend to perform. Furthermore , the author states â€Å"But to-day she passed the baker's by, climbed the stairs, went into the little dark room- her room like a cupboard†¦ She sat there for a long time.† (Mansfield 4)After coming back from the parade, getting made fun of, she goes to her room in a depressed mood and cries by herself. Lastly, from the begininng of the story, the reader can tell that Miss Brill had a unique personality. From talking and petting her fur coat, to eavesdropping, her character is a bit different from others. Her lonliness could have lead her to eavesdrop on people and have a fur coat as her friend. The author states, â€Å"This was disappointing, for Miss Brill always looked foward to the conversation.† (Mansfield 1), to show her lonliness.In this quote, the reader can see that Miss Brill liked to talk to people and even if she wasn't in the conversation, she would like to listen to them. Furthermore, he author states â€Å"How she enjoyed it! How she loved sittin g there, watching it all! It was like a play. † (Mansfield 3) This quote is explaining how she enjoyed the parade as if it was a play. The reader can see that she entertained herself by going to the park every weekend to forget about her loneliness.The author successfully used these three literary elements for the readers to better understand the story, to create the appearance of her lonliness and visualize interpret what the author was intending to say. Authors using literary elements in their story is important because they can send what they're trying to say to the readers easily with the literary elements. Furthermore, it is important to the readers because the reader's can better understand the story and relate the story to the world. Reading this story, readers can understand people who too are lonely and step into their shoes to understand their feelings.